Annual Notes

JANUARY 1, 2020

Compiled by Mr E.C. Mabuza

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Table of Content
Content Page
1. Animal nutrition 02- 35
2. Note taking 35-36
3. Animal production 37-47
4. Note taking 47-48
5. Animal reproduction 49-78
6. Note taking 78-70
7. Animal disease and protection and plant poisoning 80-108
8. Note taking 108-109
9. Basic Genetics 110- 132
1O. Note taking 132- 133
[Link] factors 134- 153
[Link] taking 153-154
[Link] marketing 155- 181
[Link] entrepreneurship and business planning 182- 185
[Link] taking 186

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Paper 1
ANIMAL NUTRITION Question 2

This refers to the foods consumed by animals and how it is digested to help
to keep the body of an animal healthy and warm
Different animals has different digestive system that suit their feeding
standard and requirements

[Link] canal of farm animals

Differences between Ruminants and non-ruminants
Structural differences:
 Ruminant: has a complex stomach
: has four stomach compartments
 Non-ruminant: has a simple stomach
: has less than four stomach compartment
Differences in feed utilized:
 Ruminant : can feed on roughages (because of the presence of micro-
organism in the rumen that assist in digestion of roughage)
: can utilize urea (since micro-organism can change urea
into microbial proteins)
 Non-ruminant: cannot feed on roughage ( such animal doesn’t have
rumen hence no micro-organism that assist in digestion of roughage)
: cannot utilize urea (doesn’t have micro-organism that
change urea into microbial protein, hence excess urea will be changed
into ammonia which is very dangerous for such animals)

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ALIMENTARY CANAL OF NON RUMINANT

Alimentary canal of a pig

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DIGESTIVE GLANDS AND DIGESTIVE JUICES

 In the mouth
Name digestive glands: salivary gland (3 pairs)

Name of digestive juice produced: saliva

 In the stomach
Name of digestive gland: Gastric glands
Name of digestive Juice produced: Gastric juice and Hydrochloric acid (hcl)
STOMACH REGIONS OF NON RUMINANTS

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Simple stomach of non-ruminant has the following regions:

CADIAC REGION: secretes mucus to protect stomach linings against Hydrochloric
Acid
PYLORIC REGION: controls the exits of foods
FUNDIC REGION: secretes Hydrochloric Acid, renin and pepsin

 In the small intestine

Name of digestive glands: gland of liberkuhn
Name of digestive juice produced: succus entericus
 In the accessory glands
1. Name gland: liver (largest gland in the body)
Digestive juice produced: Bile (alkaline juice without enzymes)
Functions of bile
 Neutralizes acid chime from the stomach
 Emulsifies fats
 Assist in absorption of fat
2. Name of gland: Pancreas
Digestive juice produced: pancreatic juice
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES AND Ph. CONTENT OF A PIG
 In the mouth
Name of enzyme: Salivary amylase
Function of the enzyme: change starch into maltose
Ph. content in the mouth of pig: alkaline (The alkaline ph. in the mouth create
suitable environment for normal functioning of enzyme amylase)
 In the stomach
Name of enzyme: Renin & pepsin
Functions of enzyme: Renin- change caseinogen into casein
: Pepsin- change protein into peptons
Ph. content in the stomach of pig: acidic

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 In the small intestine

Name of enzyme: Sucrase
: Maltase
: Lipase
: Trypsin
Function of enzymes: Sucrase- change sucrose into glucose and fructose
: Maltase- change maltose into glucose
: Trypsin- change peptides into amino acids
: Lipase- change lipids into fatty acid and glycerol

FUNCTIONING OF PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG

 Functioning of the mouth: intake of food

 Functioning of the oesophagus: transport food from mouth to the stomach
 Functioning of stomach: temporal storage of food
 Functioning of small intestine: responsible for absorption of nutrients
 Functioning of large intestine: absorption of water from undigested feed
 Functioning of anus: expel waste material away from the body
PROCESSES TAKING PLACE IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG
 In the mouth
Processes taking place: Ingestion (intake of feed)
: Digestion (breaking down of food into smaller pieces
Types of digestion
Mechanical digestion- Is the physical breaking down food into smaller
pieces
Chemical digestion- Is the breaking down of food into smaller pieces by
enzymes
: Mastication- is the physical mixing of food with saliva

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 In the stomach
Process taking place: chemical digestion (due to the presence of enzyme)
 In the small intestine
Process taking place: absorption ( transport of nutrients into blood stream
: assimilation ( process when nutrients are taken up by cells)
: chemical digestion (due to presence of enzymes)
 In the large intestine
Process taking place: microbial fermentation ( has micro-organism in has a hind-gut
(caecum)
 In the Anus
Process taking place: egestion/ excretion (expelling of waste)

ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE AIIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG

 In the mouth
has three pairs of salivary gland:
1. Parotid- situated below the ear
2. Sublingual- situated below the tongue
3. Submandibular- situated in between the parotid and sublingual
 In the oesophagus
Has muscles that relax and contract to move food in the alimentary canal
Has a cardiac sphincter that controls food entering the stomach

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 In the stomach
Has a pear shape
Has a pyloric sphincter that controls food leaving the stomach
 In the small intestine
Divided into three parts:
 Duodenum – secrets digestive enzyme
 Jejunum- absorption of nutrients
- Presence of villi
 Ileum- absorption of feeds
Structural adaptation of small intestine

 It is very long and has large surface area

 The inner surface is folded
 Folds are covered with thousands of small projection called VILLI

Structure of a villi

B- Blood capillarity- absorbs nutrients (glucose , amino acid, vitamin and minerals)
C- Lacteal- absorbs fats

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Absorption processes

Are divided into:

Active absorption- it requires energy to transport nutrients from low concentration to

high concentration against concentration gradient e.g osmosis
Passive absorption – it doesn’t require energy to transport nutrients from high
concentration to low concentration along concentration gradient e.g diffusion

Example of diagram showing active absorption process

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FOWL AS A NON RUMINANT

Alimentary canal of fowl

A. Beak E. PROVENTRICULUS
B. Mouth F. VENTRICULUS
C. Oesophagus G. DUODENUM
D. Crop H. JEJUNUM
I. ILEUM K. CAECA
J. SMALL INTESTINE L. COLON
N. CLOACA
FUNCTIONING OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL
BEAK – Collect food particles from the soil
CROP - Moistening, soaking, softening and storage
GIZZARD – Grinding of food
SMALL INTESTINE – Absorption of nutrients

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LIVER – Secret bile

- Store glucose
- Store fat soluble vitamin
-detoxifies harmful substances
LARGE INTESTINE – absorption of water from undigested food
CLOACA - expel both urine and faeces
PROCESSES OCCURING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF FOWL
BEAK – ingestion
OESOPHAGUS – Peristalsis
CROP – Moistening of food
PROVENTRICULUS – Chemical digestion
VENTRICULUS – Mechanical digestion /physical digestion
ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL
It has TWO stomach compartment:
 VENTRICULUS (muscular stomach)
Contain small stones that help in grinding of food (mechanical digestion)
Contain a layer of muscle that help in grinding of food (mechanical
digestion)
 PROVENTRICULUS (glandular stomach)
Has both enzyme RENIN and PEPSIN that help in CHEMICAL DIGESTION
CLOACA – It is urogenital (excretion of faeces and urine)

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ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT

E
A. RUMEN
B. DUODENUM
C. OMASUM
D. ABOMASUM
E. RETICULUM

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PATHWAY OF FOOD IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT

1. Food moves from the oesophagus from the mouth by PERISTALSIS into the
rumen.
2. Food REGURGITATE from the reticulo-rumen back to the mouth for re-chewing
3. After re-chewing food is moved back through RETRO-PERISTALSIS into
Omasum and abomasum
Functioning of different parts of alimentary canal of ruminants
 MOUTH – food is taken in
 OESOPHAGUS – transport food to the stomach
 STOMACH- temporally storage of food
- Divided into four compartments:
RUMEN
RETICULUM
OMASUM
ABOMASUM
 SMALL INTESTINE – absorption of nutrients
 LARGE INTESTINE – absorption of water from undigested feed
 ANUS – expel waste material away from the body
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PROCESSES TAKING PLACE IN DIFFEERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF

RUMINANTS
 MOUTH
Process taking place: Ingestion (intake of food)
: Digestion (breaking down of large food molecule into
smaller pieces)
NB: ONLY MACHANICAL DIGESTION TAKE PLACE IN THE MOUTH OF RUMINANTS
DUE TO THE ACIDIC PH AND ABSENCE OF ENZYME
 OESOPHAGUS
Process taking place: Peristalsis (alternative contraction and relaxation of muscles
responsible for movement of food in the alimentary canal)
 STOMACH
Process in the Rumen: Microbial digestion (presence of micro-organism)
: Heat production (presence of papillae)
Process In the Reticulum: Storage of foreign objects
Process In the Omasum: Water absorption (folds increase surface area for water
absorption)
: Grinding of food (folds assist in grinding of food)
Process In the Abomasum: Chemical digestion (presence of enzyme renin and
pepsin)
ADAPTATION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT
 IN THE MOUTH
Has three pairs of salivary glands
Has teeth that assist in mechanical digestion
Ph. Is acidic
Saliva has no enzyme salivary amylase

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No chemical digestion
 IN THE OESOPHAGUS
Has a ring of muscle called CARDIAC SPHINCTER that controls food
entering the stomach
It has muscles that contract and relax to move food into the stomach
 IN THE STOMACH

1. RUMEN
Is the largest stomach compartment of ruminant
Contain papillae that act as a heating rod (heat production)
Contain micro-organism (bacteria and protozoa)
POPULATION OF BACTERIA IN THE RUMEN
Cellulolytic bacteria: Digest cellulose
: Population increase with increase in cellulose intake
: Secrete enzyme CELLULASE
Amylolytic bacteria: Digest starch
: Population increase with increase in starch intake
: Secrete enzyme MALTASE
Proteolytic bacteria: Digest protein
: Population increases with increase in protein intake
Note: Rumen bacteria are very sensitive to feed changes, therefore frequent
and sudden changes in diet may disturb rumen functions

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FUNCTIONS OF RUMEN MICRO-ORGANISM

1. DIGESTION OF CELLULOSE / ROUGHAGE
Micro-organism digest cellulose to form Fatty acids, carbon dioxide and methane
Over accumulation of methane can cause animal to bloat
2. SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN
Micro-organism can make vitamin B and K
It is not important to include vitamin B Complex and vitamin K in the feed of
ruminant
3. SYNTHESIS OF PROTEIN
Micro-organism break large protein molecule into amino acids (smaller
compound)
4. DIGEST STARCH
Micro-organism digest starch into maltose (simpler substance)

REQUIREMENTS FOR MICRO-ORGANISM / IDEAL CONDITION FOR RUMEN

MICRO-ORGANISM
1. SUITABLE pH
pH 6.4
2. SUITABLE TEMPERATURE
Warm temperature between 39ºc and 40ºc
3. SUFFICIENT NITROGEN
Micro-organism need nitrogen from urea to form a protein
4. REGULAR INTAKE OF FOOD
5. OXYGEN-FREE ENVIRONMENT

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2. RETICULUM
It is known a honeycomb stomach or a hardware stomach
It is where foreign objects are stored

3. OMASUM
It is known as a leaf stomach
It has many folds that help in water absorption
It has many folds that help in grind of food

4. ABOMASUM
It known a TRUE STOMACH or milk stomach
It corresponds with the simple stomach of a pig and a Proventriculus of a fowl
Supplied with the following:
Digestive Glands: gastric gland
Digestive juice produced: gastric juice and hydrochloric acid
Digestive enzymes: renin and pepsin
Ph. medium: acidic
Process: chemical digestion / enzymatic digestion
Alimentary of young ruminant

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOUNG RUMINANT AND ADULT RUMINANT

YOUNG RUMINANT MATURED RUMINANT
Fore stomach is underdeveloped Fore stomach is fully
developed
Only the abomasum is functional All the four stomach functions
Oesophageal groove is present Oesophageal groove is absent

2. Components of feeds
Animals require all the essential nutrients to balance their daily ration.
These nutrients become indispensable for life. All the major nutrients
includes; WATER, CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN, LIPIDS,
MINERALS AND VITAMIN.
These nutrients are needed for many purpose which includes:

1. WATER

all fluid in the animal’s body

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SOURCE OF WATER (WAYS IN WHICH ANIMAL OBTAINS WATER)

water produced by chemical reactions in the animal’s body)

IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN ANIMALS

WATER USAGE AND FEED INTAKE IN RELATION TO

TEMPERATURE AND OTHER FACTORS
 ON A COLD DAY (low temperatures)
Animal drink LESS and eat MORE feed
REASON: energy released from feed is used to keep the animal warm
 ON HOT DAY (high temperatures)
Animal drink MORE water and eat less feed
REASON: large amount of water help the animal to cool down
2. CARBOHYDRATES
It is created by PLANTS through photosynthesis
It is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
It includes:
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES: GLUCOSE
COMPLEX CABOHYDRATE: STARCH
INSOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES: CELLULOSE and LIGNIN
Made of element carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Has HIGH CRUDE FIBRE CONTENT
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FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

BUILDING BLOCK OF CARBOHYDRATES

EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATE RICH FEEDS

3. PROTEIN

ORGANIC COMPOUND

CRUDE PROTEIN- all proteins found in feed

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN- amount of protein that was not excreted in faeces
but to be used by the animal
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur
low crude fibre content
FUNCTION OF PROTEIN

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BUILDING BLOCK OF PROTEIN

Amino acid
EXAMPLES OF PROTEIN RICH FEED

PROTEIN SUPPLIMENT
Proteins can be supplemented by SOURCE OF NPN;
UREA- cheap source
BUIRET- expensive feed
4. FATS AND OIL (LIPIDS)
is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
Differences between FATS and OIL
FATS – Originates from animals
- Solid at room temperature
OIL – originate from plants
-liquid at room temperature
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
important organs (such as heart, liver, and lungs)

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BUILDING BLOCK OF LIPIDS

5. VITAMINS
EXAMPLES OF VITAMINS AND THE RESPECTIVE DEFICIENCY DISEASE
DEFICIENCY

Example of fat soluble vitamin

Vitamin A
Night blindness
Keratomalaise
Poor vision
D (needed for absorption of calcium and phosphorus)
Oestomalacia
Rickets
Vitamin E (act as antioxidant)
Stiff lamb disease
Vitamin K
Poor blood clotting

Example of water soluble vitamin

Polyneuritis
Vitamin B2
Curled-toe paralysis
Vitamin B12 (it contain element cobalt)
Poor hatching of chicken
Wasting disease

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6. MINERALS

e divided into:
MARCRO MINERAL – are minerals that are needed in large quantities
MICRO MINERAL - are minerals that are needed in small quantities
when they insufficient
Mineral Deficiency

Rickets and Oestomalacia

Pica (animal feed on non-feeding object)

Goitre (enlargement of thyroid

gland)

Anaemia (low haemoglobin in blood)

Parakeratosis ( rough skin in pigs)

Keratinization (hairlessness)

Swayback

Wasting disease

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3. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS
DIGESTIBILITY -Amount of feed that is not excreted in faeces but restored in the
animal’s body
DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT- proportion of a nutrient taken absorbed by
animal expressed in percentage

FACTORS DERTEMINING DIGESTIBILITY OF FEED

TYPE OF ANIMAL
Feed with high crude fibre are mostly digested by ruminants than by non-
ruminants
AGE OF PLANT
Hay made from younger plants are more digestible than hay made from older
plants (older plants has lignin that is not easily digested)
INDIVIDUALITY
Individual animals differ based on their ability to digest feed
COMPOSITION OF FEED
High percentage of crude fibre in a feed results in lower digestibility
NUTRITIVE RATIO
Feed with wide nutritive ratio are less digestible than feed with narrow nutritive
ratio
WAYS TO IMPROVE / INCREASE DIGESGTIBILITY OF FEEDS
ING

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DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT
Let’s assume that 70kg of feed was taken in and only 30kg was excreted, one must
assume that 40kg was digested and absorbed in the body of animal.
(70kg – 30kg = 40kg) This means that 40kg of the 70kg is absorbed by the animal
Example: calculate the digestibility coefficient of the following ration of a
matured animal
Animal ingested 25kg of grass with the moisture content of 75%. 8kg of feed was
excreted in faeces with a moisture content of 80%

75
𝐦𝐨𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞: × 25Kg
100

=18,75kg
Therefore: 25kg – 18.75kg
=6.25kg (dry matter intake)

80
Moisture excreted: × 8𝑘𝑔
100

=6.4kg
∴ 8kg – 6.4kg
=1.6kg (dry matter excreted)
DIGESTIBILITY COEEFFECIENT % =DM intake (kg) – DM excreted (kg) x100

DM intake (kg)
= 6.25kg ˗˗ 1.6kg x100
6. 25kg
= 74.4%

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IMPLICATION OF THE CO-EFFICIENT ABOVE

74.4% of the feed is absorbed in the body of the animal, hence 25.6% is excreted in
faeces
Note the interpretation of digestibility co-efficient
: Above 70% - very high (good digestibility)
: 60-70% - high (moderate digestibility)
: 40-59% - low digestibility
: Less than 40% - very low digestibility

4. QUALITY OF FEED
Different feeds has various physical chemical characteristics that determine its
quality
BIOLOGICAL VALUE (BV) OF PROTEIN
Is the index used to measure the quality of protein in a feed
It is determined by;
 Amino acid composition
 Ratio of amino acid
 Amount of nitrogen supplied
Note: FEED WITH HIGH AMINO ACID CONTENT IS A GOOD QUALITY
FEED AND HAS HIGH BIOLOGICAL VALUE

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID AND NON ESSENTIAL AMINO

ACID
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID- Amino acid cannot be synthesized and need to be
taken in feed
NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID – Amino acid that can be synthesized by
animal’s body

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TYPE OF FEED BV %
1OO
95
90
75
60

5. ENERGY VALUE OF FEED

Energy in animals is provided by feed taken in and expressed in kilojoules
TYPES OF ENERGY VALUE OF FEEDS
GROSS ENEGY (GE) - is the potential energy (total energy value of feed)
- is the energy released when feed is completely burnt
(Combustion) to its final product
DIGESTIBLE ENERGY (DE) – is gross energy minus energy lost in manure
(faeces)
METABOLIC ENERGY (ME) – is gross energy minus energy lost in manure,
urine and gases (methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (co2)
NET ENERGY- is the gross energy minus energy lost in manure, urine gases
and body heat
REASON FOR CALCULATING ENERGY VALUE OF FEED

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6. NUTRITIVE RATIO
Is the measure of protein content in a feed
EXAMPLE OF NUTRITIVE RATIO
A feed has 75% TDN (TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS) AND 25% DP
(DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN). Calculate the nutritive ratio of this feed.
NR=1: TDN – DP
DP
=1: 75% ˗ 25%
25%
= 1: 50
25
= 1:2 (narrow)
Meaning for every 1 part of digestible protein there’s 2 parts of other
nutrients

ANALYSIS OF NUTRITIVE RATIO

• RATIO ABOVE 1:6

ction but SUITABLE for fattening and

maintenance

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• RATIO BELOW 1:6

and maintenance

7. TYPES OF FEEDS
CONCENTRATE – feed with small volume per unit mass (not bulky)
ROUGHAGE – feed with large volume per unit mass (bulky)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROUGHAGE AND CONCENTRATE

ROUGHAGE (HAY) CONCENTRATE (MEAL)

%TDN: Low (not easily digestible) %TDN: High (easily digestib
%Crude fibre: high %Crude fibre: low
%crude protein: low %crude protein: high
Cost: cheap Cost: expensive
Animal utilised: ruminants only Animal utilized: both
ruminants and non-ruminants
Bulkiness: it is bulk Bulkiness: less bulk

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TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF CONCENTRATES

CONCENTRATES

PROTEIN RICH CONCENTRATE

CARBOHYDRATES RICH
Plant origin
CONCENTRATES
Lucerne, sunflower-oil-cake meal, groundnut
oil cake meal, peanut oilcake meal Maize meal, oatmeal, sorghum meal

Animal origin

Fish meal, blood meal, meat meal

TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF ROUGHAGE

ROUGHAGE

DRY ROUGHAGE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGE

Protein-rich Silage

Lucerne hay, groundnut hay

Carbohydrates-rich

Oat straws, maize stalks

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8. SUPPLIMENTING RATION
This is additional feed given to animal to stimulate growth and production

WAYS TO SUPPLIMENT MINERALS

 MINERAL LICKS
that are placed near drinking water
It is used to supplement: Urea
: Sodium
: Potassium
 INJECTION
ron injection in piglets to prevent anaemia
 CAFETIRIA STYLE/ FREE CHOICE/AD LIB
inerals are supplied to the feeding station that is usually controlled by a
computer system
nimal can feed on nutrients as much as the like
 ADD SOIL SOD
oor
 DOSING BY MOUTH

 SUPPLIMENTING RATIONS

 ADD MINERAL IN DRINKING WATER

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WAYS TO SUPPLEMENT VITAMIN

 Mix vitamin with feed
 Free choice/ cafeteria style
 Mix vitamin A with water
 Injection
 Dosing
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT
Protein can be supplemented by adding NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN
(NPN) SOURCES;

Cheap source of NPN

Can be utilized by ruminants to make protein
It is poisonous when taken in large quantities
Can dissolve in water when there is rain and become poisonous to
animals drinking this water

Expensive source of NPN

It is less soluble and safer to use
It cannot dissolve in water

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9. GROWTH STIMULANTS
This are substances that are used to influence growth rate
TYPE OF GROWTH STIMULANTS
TRANQUILISER/ SEDATIVE – Keep animal calm and eat more feed

ANTIBIOTICS –Prevent disease that can affect growth rate in animals

THYROID REGULATOR – It stimulates animal’s metabolism and growth rate

HORMONES – growth hormone in pellets are planted under the skin of animal to
stimulate growth

10. PLANNING FODDER FLOW PROGRAMME

It is a strategic plan used by farmer to ensure that enough feed is available over a
given period of time

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING A FODDER FLOW

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COST EFFECTIVE WAYS OF USING THE AVAILABLE FEED

educe number of animal

TYPES OF RATION
MAINTANANCE RATION – amount of feed given to animal doing no work
producing no product
PRODUCTION RATION – it’s over and above maintenance given to animal
doing work and producing products

11. THE PEARSON SQUARE METHOD

Is a tool for balancing nutritional value of a feed mixture
EXAMPLE OF PEARSON SQUARE
A balanced ration of maize with 10%DP and soya meal with 42%DP was prepared
for dairy cattle to meet the nutritional requirement of 16%DP

Maize10 26 parts of maize

Soya meal 42 6 parts of soya meal

26:6/ 6:26

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CALCULATING PERCENTAGES OF FEED MIXTURES ON A PEARSON

SQUARE
26 + 6 =32(make this your denominator)
26
% of maize= × 100
32

=81.25%
6
% of soya meal= × 100
32

=18.75%

YOU’RE NOW READY TO GRAB THE FIRST 50 MARKS OF YOUR PAPER 1

NOTES

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QUESTION 3
PAPER 1

ANIMAL PRODUCTION
 To increase production of animal farmers should plan on which
production system to be used according to the aim and economic
standard of an individual farmer

1. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Animal production system are divided into:

Intensive production system
production system that is characterized by high inputs of capital,
labour and usage of technology

Extensive production system

s is a production system that uses few inputs of capital, less labour and less
use of technology

as less environmental effects as it use vegetation sustainably

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION

SYSTEM
INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE
PRODUCTION PRODUCTION
GOAL Making profit Minimizing risk
PRODUCTION OUT- High production out-put Low production out-put
PUT
CAPITAL High capital investment Low capital investment
INVESTMENT
LABOUR More labourers Less labourers
AREA OF LAND Occupies small area Occupies large area
MANAGEMENT Animal are carefully Animals are less
managed managed
ENVIRONMENTAL More environmental Less environmental
EFFECTS effects effects
FEEDING Animal kept in feedlot, Animals kept in the veld
broiler unit, layer units, to graze on natural
furrowing pen and are pasture
fed with special
formulated feeds

FACTORS DETERMINING PRODUCTION UNDER INTENSIVE AND

EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION
UNDER INTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Feeding – farmer need to produce or buy feed for the animal (specifically feed
suitable for growth and production)
Environment – shelter should be provided to control environmental conditions
(installation of heaters and fans)
Breeding – the farmer select animal with desired characteristics (such as those
that are adapted to produce high quality products, resistant to disease and pests) to
be used for breeding purpose

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UNDER EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Feeding – farmer optimise the use of natural pasture for nutrition
Environment – they don’t have artificial shelter, they rely on trees or other
natural structures for protection against environmental conditions
Breeding - nature select animals with desired characteristics that are adapted to
the environment to survive

2. FARMING SYSTEMS

Farming system are divided into:

-scale (subsistence) farming system
. Farmer grows crops and keeps livestock to feed their families rather than to sell
.It is practiced intensively in rural areas of South Africa
.Less use of technology
.They have small plot “small-scale”
-scale (commercial) farming system
.Farmer grows crops and keeps livestock to sell at the market to make profit.
.Modern technology is used
.Contribute to environmental pollution
.They have large plots “large-scale

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3. ANIMAL SHELTER, HOUSING AND

PROTECTION
REASON FOR PTOVING SHELTER TO ANIMALS
Shelter provide protection of animals against:

Wetting by rain

DIFFERENT STRUCTURES USED FOR SHELTER

Feedlot- restricted area where large animals are kept for maximum production of
meat
Battery system- restricted area where chickens are kept for maximum production
of eggs
 Chickens that produced eggs are called layers
Broiler unit – restricted area where chickens are kept for maximum production of
meat
 Chickens that produce meat are called broilers
Backyard system-
Free range system-
Deep litter-

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BASIC LAYOUT OF HOUSE FOR ANIMALS (chickens)

Built on slight slope
 For water run off
Dry bedding (use straws, sawdust or wood shaving)
 Protect animals against cold
 Cemented floor
 Easy to clean (prevent parasite infestation)
 Avoid mud when wet
Long building side face east
 Warm in winter and cool in summer

4. BEHAVIOUR AND HANDLING OF FARM

ANIMALS
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
interact and reacts with human, other animals
and the environment
FACTOR DERTEMINING BAHAVIOURS OF ANIMALS
Tameness

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THE FLIGHT ZONE

Is the distance that the animal likes to keep between themselves and threat of
danger

A= HANDLERS POSITION
 Handler should be outside the edge of flight zone.
 In this position the handler is not a threat to the animal
 Handler initiate movement
B= FLIGHT ZONE
 The distance the animal keep between themselves and threat to danger
C= BLIND SPOT
 Area in which animal will kick when approached
D= BALANCE POINT

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COMMON BEHAVIOURS OF DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS

COMMON NORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF CATTLE (large

animal)
GRAZZING: they divide a day into periods of GRAZZING,
REGURGITATION AND REST
: position of eye give them a wide angle view (without turning their
heads)
HEARING: They have strong sense of hearing (can be stressed when exposed
to too much noise)
SOCIAL INSITINCTS: they have herd instinct (can be agitated and stressed
when isolated)
: They may refuse to cross a shadow
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE CATTLE UNDER DISTRESS
o PAWING
o RAPID TAIL MOVEMENT
o RAISED BACK FUR
o SNORTING
SMALL ANIMALS (SHEEP and GOATS)

COMMON NORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF SMALL

ANIMALS:
SHEEP AND GOATS
hey have a flock instinct

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PIGS

place for sleeping (they don’t defecate where they sleep)

ABORMAL BEHAVIOR OF PIG UNDER DISTRESS
o TAIL BITING
o EAR BITING
o CANNIBALISM (kill and eat other pigs in the pen)
o BELLY NIBBLING

ANIMAL HANDLING
It is when you touch, hold or move animal one place to another

REASON FOR HANDLING FARM ANIMALS

When administering medication to animals
• When dehorning, castration and docking
• When milking
• When transporting animals
• When taking data such body weight, and pregnancy testing
• When inseminating animals
• When slaughtering

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TOOL, TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENTS USED FOR HANDLING OF

FARM ANIMALS
WHEN HANDLING A CATTLE:

USE OF HALTER
 restrain animal by its head usually when milking

USE OF CRUSH
 restrain large animals
DESIGN FEATURES OF A CRUSH
 High and strong solid sides
 Wide and straight to provide clear path
 No sharp pointing objects

USES OF RAMP
 To load and unload animals
DESIGN FEATURE OF A LOADING RAMP
 Should not be slippery
 Should not be too steep

-
USE OF RED FLAG
used when animals are crossing busy roads

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HISTLE
WHNE HANDLING A PIG
 PLYWOOD BOARD
 PLASTIC SHAKERS
 BOX
 CRUSH
GUIDELINE WHEN HANDLING FARM ANIMALS

hasing and grabbing

(blind spot)

GUIDELINE WHEN TRANSPORTING AND MOVING ANIMALS

animal

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INCORRECT HANDLING METHODS OF FARM ANIMALS

wing objects to animals
ling chicken with feathers (should be handled with feet or wings)

You are now ready to tackle your question 3 of your paper one. But only one
topic pending (animal disease and animal pests) to complete your entire
question 3 of paper 1
Notes

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ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
 For farm animal to thrive, they must be able to reproduce
 Proper functioning of male and female reproductive system is the key to
successful production of offspring

1. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A= seminal vesicle. B= Prostate gland. C = Cowper’s gland. D= Sperm

duct. E=Urethra. F= Penis. G= Epididymis. H= Testis. I= Scrotum.

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FUCTIONING OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

SCROTUM
 Holds and protect the testis
 Regulates temperature for normal sperm production

 Produce sperm (male gamete)

 Produce testosterone (male hormone)
 TESTOSTERONE
Stimulate production of sperm
Development of male characteristics

 Stores , matures and transport sperm

RM DUCT
 Transport sperm to the urethra

 Transport both urine and semen to the outside

 Deposit semen to the female’s body during mating

 SEMINAL VESICLE
Is the largest sex gland
Secretes sticky fluid that that provide energy for sperm
 PROSTATE GLAND
Forms a ring around the urethra
Secrete a milky, alkaline fluid that regulates ph.
 COWPER’S GLAND
Secrete fluid that lubricate and clean the urethra

ADAPTATION OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

ADAPTATION OF THE TESTES: contain specialized cells;
 SERTOLI CELLS- supply sperm with nutrients
 LAYDIG CELLS- produce hormone testosterone
 EPITHELIAL CELLS- produce sperm

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PROCCESS OCCURING IN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Process: Temperature regulation

Process: Meiosis (cell division)

: Spermatogenesis (sperm formation)

Process: Sperm maturation

Process: Ejaculation

Process: Copulation

SPERMATOGENESIS
Is the process that involve the formation sperm

PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS
1. SPERMATOGONIUM (the undifferentiated male germinal epithelial cell)
found in the wall of the seminiferous tubule divides by MITOSIS to form a
primary spermatocytes that are diploid (2n)
2. PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 1 to form secondary
spermatocytes
3. SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 2 to form haploid
spermatid
4. SPERMATID undergo differentiation (change) and develop into a MATURE
SPERM

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF SPERM CELL

- contain enzyme that digest the outer membrane the egg during
fertilization
- contain genetic material
- help with cell division
–supply energy
– enable sperm to move (propels the sperm forward)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPERM CELL AND SEMEN
- is a male gamete
- is a fluid containing sperm

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ABNORMALITIES IN THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 These abnormalities may cause the inability of a bull to serve and fertilize a
cow.
 Abnormalities can be either permanent or temporal
STERILITY AND INFERTILITY

STERILITY
 Is a permanent inability to reproduce
 Is a total loss of fertility
Caused by congenital defect (defects that are present from birth)

FACTORS CAUSING STERILITY

–underdevelopment of one or both testes
– failure of one or both testes to descend from
abdominal cavity
– animal having both male and female reproductive
system
– absence of sperm in semen
- older animals permanently lose their libido

INFERTILITY
 Temporal inability to reproduce
 Fertility is not totally lost
 It can be corrected and reclaim the animal’s ability to reproduce

FACTORS CAUSING INFERTILIY

Obesity
IMPORTANCE – inability to copulate

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2. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A= Ovary. B= Oviduct. C= Uterus. D= Cervix. E= Vagina. F= Clitoris. G= Vulva

FUCNTIONING OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Function: Produce female gamete (ovum)

: Produce female hormone (Oestrogen & Progesterone)
 OESTROGEN
Function: Stimulate oestrus
: Stimulate the thickening of endometrium

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: Development of female characteristics

 PROGESTERONE
Function: Maintain pregnancy
: Prepare the wall of uterus for implantation

Function: Catch the egg during ovulation

Function: Transport fertilized egg to the uterus

Function: Implantation of fertilized egg

Function: Secretes mucous that prevent bacterial infection

: Secretes fluid that neutralize the acidity of the vagina

Function: Receives semen during copulation

: Serves as a birth canal

PROCESS OCCURING IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Process: Oogenesis (formation of egg)

: Meiosis (cell division)

Process: Fertilization (site of fertilization)

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Process: Implantation

Process: Copulation

ABNORMALITIES IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

STERILITY AND INFERTILITY

STERILITY
Permanent inability to conceive
It is caused by congenital defect and genetic defects
FACTORS CAUSING STERILITY IN COWS
– underdevelopment of one or both ovaries

–having both male and female reproductive organs

INFERTILITY

nd reclaim the reproduction of animal

FACTORS CAUSING INFERTILITY IN COWS

– animal showing no signs of oestrus

– cow is permanently on oestrus
– failure of animal to conceive after
several attempts of mating

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DISEASE- such as infection of the uterus (Metritis)

EXPERIENCE

3. OESTRUS AND OESTRUS CYCLE

Is the hormonal controlled cycle of activities taking place in the female
reproductive system over 21 days
Can be disturbed by PREGNANCY, DISEASE & CLIMATE
FEMALE HORMONES THAT CONTROL THEN OESTRUS
CYCLE

 Secreted by hypothalamus in the brain

Function: Stimulate release of FSH & LH

 Secreted by hypophysis in the brain

Function: Stimulates development of follicle of the ovaries

 Produced by the follicle of the ovary

Function: Stimulates oestrus
: Stimulate development of female characteristics
: stimulate development of endometrium

 Secreted by the hypophysis in the brain

Function: stimulate ovulation (cause developed follicle to burst and egg is
released)
: stimulate formation of corpus luteum

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 Secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary

Function: maintain pregnancy

STAGES OF OESTRUS CYCLE IN COWS

1. PRO-OESTRUS
-3 days

2. 0ESTRUS
Is the stage in the oestrus cycle where female is receptive to male and allow
mating
- 18 hours (18 hours is the average length)

SIGNS OF OESTRUS (HEAT) IN COWS

ws and allow them to mount her

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ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF DETECTING AN ANIMAL ON

OESTRUS (HEAT)
CHIN-BALL MARKER- is a device strapped on the chin of animal expected
to mount a cow on heat. The ink of the marker will leave a streak on the back of
the cow that was mounted or attempted to be mounted
–CHALKING- the chalk is rubbed on the back within the tail of the cow
to be detected.
- is a device that is strapped around the lower leg of a cow to
detect movement
- is a device glued at the back of the cow
suspected to be on heat. Pressure from the chest of mounting animal will turn the
originally white detector to be red
3. MET-OESTRUS
-4 days

take place (bursting of the follicle and the release of egg)

4. DI-OESTRUS
-16 days

 IF FERTILISATION TOOK PLACE (animal is pregnant)

um is fully developed

 IF FERTILISATION DID NOT TAKE PLACE (animal is not pregnant)

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GRAPH SHOWING OESTRUS CYCLE

Graph represents: A- OESTROGEN

: B- PROGESTERON
SYNCHRONISATION OF OESTRUS
Is the process involving making group of animals to come to oestrus approximately
at the same time

HORMONES USED DURING SYNCHRONISATION

MGA- it is mixed with feed

STAGLANDIN INJECTION

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5. MATING
Mating is divided into: natural mating and artificial mating

NATURAL MATING
Stages of natural mating

Factors regulating mating behavior

ARTIFICIAL MATING
Divided into:
 Artificial insemination
 Embryo transfer
 Cloning
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)
Is a technique where semen is collected from a male animal and deposited into
the uterus of a female animal for fertilization?

REQUIREMENTS FOR ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

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 COLLECTION OF SEMEN
Method of collection includes

-EJACULATOR- involve application of a series of short, low

voltage pulse of currents into the rectum and results in ejaculatory response

 SEMEN DILUTION (treatment)

Semen is diluted using:
SKIMMED MILK – control Ph.
EGG YOLK- protect semen from change in temperature
GLYCEROL- prevent semen from freezing
ANTIBIOTICS- prevent bacterial infection
 SEMEN EVALUATION
MACRO SCOPIC EVALUATION (with naked eyes)
Characteristics of semen seen with naked eye;

RED- represents fresh blood

BROWN- represents infection
GREY- represents old blood

, 9)

(with a microscope)
Characteristics of semen seen under a microscope;

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY SEMEN

CHARACTERISTICS OF POOR QUALITY SEMEN

cell)

SEMEN STORAGE AND THAWING

Semen is stored in straws
 FOR LONG PERIOD : -196°C on a liquid nitrogen
Thawing of semen:
 Place straws in 37°C water for 30-40 sec

TIMING OF INSEMINATION

the afternoon. If it shows signs of oestrus in the afternoon should be inseminated

next morning

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ADVANTAGES OF AI

n still be used after the death of the male animal

DISADVANYAGES OF AI

g
EMBRYO TRANSFER
Is the transfer of fertilized egg (embryo) from the DONOR to the RECIEPIENT
The DONOR has superior characteristics
The RECIEPIENT has genetically inferior characteristics

STEPS OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

1. Synchronization of donor and recipient
2. Superovulation of donor
3. AI of donor
4. Embryo flushing from the donor
5. ET to the recipient

ADVANTAGES OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

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DISADVANTAGES OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

calf
CLONNING
Is the breeding of animal to produce offspring that is genetically identical to the
original organism
STEPS OF THE CLONNING PROCESS
e cloned
(donor)

divides to form an embryo

TYPES OF CLONNING

Result in the formation of a whole organism

The cloned embryo is placed in the uterus of a female animal

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PEUTIC CLONNING
Used in production of organs, cells and tissues
It aim on finding cure for disease (intention is not to create an offspring) through
the use of stem cells

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AIMS OF CLONNING

ce offspring from superior animals

6. FERTILISATION
Is the fusion of sperm (male gamete) and egg cell (female gamete) to form a
zygote

Identical twins
They of same sex
Develop from fertilization of single egg
They share same placenta

Non-identical twins
They are of opposite or same sex
Develop from fertilization of two separate eggs
They share different placenta

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Infertile or sterile female calf that develop in the uterus with the normal male
calf
Male hormone of the developing bull calf affects the female calf.

7. PREGNANCY/ GESTATION
Is the period between fertilization and birth (it starts when the egg is fertilized
until the animal give birth
DURATION: 280 days

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STAGES OF PREGNANCY

First stage of pregnancy

During this stage the following occur:
The fertilized egg (zygote) travels along the oviduct to the uterus
Last from fertilization until implantation
Zygote divides by mitosis (this is called CLEAVAGE) to form a blastocyst
Blastocyst attach to the wall of uterus (this is called IMPLANTATION)

Second stage of pregnancy

During this stage the following occur:
Blastocyst divides to from an embryo
Cells differentiates to form tissues, organs and system (e.g. urinary system and
digestive system etc.)
Extra-embryonic membrane that covers the embryo develop as follows;
 CHORION
Is the outer membrane
Attached to the uterus

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 AMNION
Is the inner membrane
It encloses amniotic fluid
Embryo is connected to the amnion by umbilical cord
 ALLANTOIS
It grows out of the urinary system
It collects urine from the unborn calf
attach the embryo to the wall of uterus
It brings blood of the mother and the embryo in close contact but there is no
mixing
It allows exchange of nutrients, gases, and elimination of waste material
In the early embryonic development cells migrate to the interior of the
embryo, forming the three primordial germ layers:

Ectoderm
Is the outer layer
It gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermal skin cells

Mesoderm
Is the middle layer
It gives rise to the skeletal muscles, bone cartilage, joints and urogenital organ

Endoderm
Is the inner layer
It gives rise to the digestive system and other internal organs

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Is the third stage of pregnancy

During stage the following occur;
The organs of the embryo grows and develop
Embryo develops into a foetus
Foetus increase in volume and mass
Foetus grows and show characteristic of normal mammal

8. ABORTION
Is the termination of pregnancy before normal parturition

CAUSES OF ABORTION

OTHER FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE FOETUS TO DIE:

MUMMIFICATION- foetus dies after the skin and skeleton have already
been formed i.e. amniotic fluid and placenta dries out
RESPORPTION- termination of pregnancy without signs of loss of foetus
loss i.e. foetus is attached to the uterus
MACERATION – is the decaying of soft tissue leaving behind only bones
(may lead to bacterial infection)
HYDRO-FOETUS- excessive amniotic fluid collets in the chorion and
under the skin and between muscles of the foetus

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9. PARTURITION (BIRTH)
Is the normal separation of offspring from the body of the mother

SIGNS OF PARTURITION (signs of a cow about to give birth)

Isolates herself

STAGES OF PARTURITION
 PREPARATORY STAGE
ition

 EJECTION STAGE

s appear on the vulva

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he body of the female

 EXPLUSION OF PLACENTA

Note: With after birth we mean the umbilical cord and foetal membranes.
: There are some case in which the placenta or after birth is retained in the body of the
female

FACTORS CAUSING RETENTION OF PLACENTA

10. DYSTOCIA
Is the difficulty of giving birth

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Under normal circumstance the young animal is born head and forelegs first, with the head lying
on the forelegs

CAUSES OF DYSTOCIA

Deviation of the head – head is displayed sideways, upwards or downwards

Retention of both forelegs- forelegs are trapped inside only head appears on the vulva
Hydrocephalus –when there is accumulation of fluid in the brain which cause the skull to be
large three to four times the normal size
Twins -
Posterior presentation-all the four legs enters the pelvic ring simultaneously
– cloned animals are usually abnormally large
Large foetus
Congenital defect-newly born calf might have crooked legs and wry neck

INDEGENOUS TREATMENT OF DYSTOCIA

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11. LACTATION
Is a milk production process
Duration: 305days after that the milk dries up

STRUCTURE OF THE UDDER

FUNCTIONING OF THE UDDER

 It is where milk is produced or synthesized

 It pump deoxygenated blood from the udder to the heart and the lungs
VEIN
 Supply the udder with oxygenated blood

 Transport waste products away from the udder

HOMORNES INVOLVED IN MILKING REFLEX

 Stimulates production of milk

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 Stimulates release of milk

 Stops milk production

MILKING STIMULI
The udder has nerves that respond to stimuli
Example of milk stimuli:

Oxytocin

ALL THIS STIMULI STIMULATE THE BRAIN TO RELEASE HORMONE

OXYTOCIN.

COLOSTRUM
Is the first milk produced after calving (usually after 3 day)
It is yellower than normal milk

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CHARACTERISITIC OF COLOSTRUM
Contain extra nutrients
 Protein
 Fats
 Lactose

 Calcium
 Phosphorus

 Increase resistance to disease

LACTATION CURVES SHOWING BUTTER FAT AND MILK

PRODUCTION

 When milk production increase butterfat content decreases.

 And again when milk production start decreasing butterfat content increase.
 After 3 days the cow will start producing normal milk (no more colostrum)
 Milk production reach peak about 8 weeks and continue until it dries out

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LACTATION CURVE SHOWING MILK PRODUCTION IN RELATION TO

FEED INTAKE AND BODY MASS

 When milk production INCREASE the animal eats a LOT but body mass
DECREASES.
 When milk production DECREASE animal eat LESS and body mass INCREASES

DRYING-OFF PERIOD
Is the natural end of lactation

REASON FOR DRYING OFF OF COWS

infections at the beginning and end of dry period

Notes

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TOPIC 5

ANIMAL DISEASE AND PROTECTION

 The main important task for the farmer is to maintain the health of their animals
 Healthy animal mean increased profit and successful farm business
 It is usually very cheap to control and protect animals from disease than treatment

1. ANIMAL HEALTH

SIGNS OF GOOD HEALTH AND POOR HEALTH IN ANIMALS

Signs of good health Signs of poor health
1. Urine and faeces appear normal 1. Urine may be discoloured and
feaces too soft or too hard
2. Normal milk production 2. Low milk production
3. Animal walk normal 3. Animal walk slow
4. Normal breathing 4. Forced breathing
5. Normal body temperature 5. High body temperature
6. Normal pulse rate 6. Abnormal pulse rate
7. Animal eat well 7. Animal lose appetite

TESTING ANIMAL HEALTH

It is very important to take careful precaution when testing animals,
this precautions includes :

strained in different ways depending on TYPE and SIZE animal

to be tested

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ANIMAL RESTRAINING METHODS

HEAD GATES

 Trap the head of large animals

 Example of animal restrained: bulls
HALTER
 used to lead animal and tie it on a post
 Example of animal restrained: cattle and horse

 Hold large animals by nose

 Example of animal restrained: bulls
CRUSH
 use to handle large ruminants

ANIMAL TESTING METHODS

TESTING ANIMAL’S BODY TEMPERATURE

 Instrument used : rectal thermometer
 Site of insertion : rectum
 Normal body temperature : 37°c - 40°c
 Precautions : Tie thermometer with a string so that it does not get lost in the
body of animal
: Coat thermometer with a sterile jelly to lubricate it

 What is pulse rate?: equal number of heart beats in a minute

 Instrument used : stethoscope

 What is respiratory rate?: equal number of breaths in a minute

 Determining respiratory rate: watch the rib cage movement and count the
number of breaths in one minute
 Instrument used : stethoscope

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TREATMENT OF SICK ANIMAL

If an animal become sick, it must be given be given medication so that it can return
to good health

METHOD OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINE

Medication is taken directly into the mouth of animal

It includes:
 Pills- use a balling gun (device to place pill in animal’s throat)
 Powder- mix powder with water or feed
 Liquids- use a drenching gun or a syringe to give medicine in a form
of liquid to animals

Medication is applied directly to the wound or skin

It includes :
 Creams
 Sprays
 Dips

Administering medicine using a syringe and a needle

It includes:
 Intravenous- into the vein (effect is very fast)
 Intramuscular – into the muscle
 Subcutaneous – under the skin
 Intradermal – between the layers of skin
 Intramammary injection- into the udder

Drug for retained placenta or vaginal infection is inserted into the vagina

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SUSTAINABLE USE OF MEDICINE

2. ANIMAL DISEASE
Most animal disease are caused by small organism called PATHOGEN (Bacteria,
virus, fungi and protozoa)
Different pathogen cause different animal diseases

VIRUS
This pathogen causes viral disease
highly contagious and zoonotic

-curable

Note:
CONTAGEOUS DISEASE- disease that spread through contact
ZOONOTIC DISEASE- disease that can spread from animals to human and vice
versa
EPIDERMIC DISEASE- disease that affect large number of animals
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE- disease that need to be reported after seeing symptoms

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EXAMPLES OF VIRAL DISEASE

OOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD)
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMAL
Symptoms: SORES IN THE MOUTH, TONGUE
AND TOES (HOOVES)
HIGH FEVER
Mode of transmission: INGESTING CONTAMINATED FEED
:CONTACT WITH SECRETIONS AND
: EXCRETIONS FROM INFECTED
ANIMAL
Treatment: VACCINATION
: QUARANTINE INFECTED ANIMALS
: SLAUGHTER AND BURN INFECTED ANIMALS

Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS

Symptoms: HIGH FEVER
: AGGRESSION
: EXCESSIVE SALIVATION
: EXCITEMENT
: PARALYSIS OF HINDQUATERS

Mode of transmission: BITE FROM AN INFECTED ANIMAL

Treatment : VACCINATION
:INFECTED ANIMALS SHOULD BE DISTROYED
AND MEAT BURNT

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(RVF)
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER
: ARBOTION
Mode of transmission: BITE FROM AN INSECT (MOSQUITO)
: HANDLING AFFECTED ANIMAL
MEAT OR BLOOD
Treatment: VACCINATION
: SLAUGHTER AND BURN INFECTED ANIMALS

NEW CASTLE DISEASE (NCD)

Animal affected: POULTRY
Symptoms: TWISTED NECKS
: GREEN DIARRHOEA
: RAPID BREATHING
Mode of transmission: CHICKEN EATING CONTAMINATED
FEED
: DRINKING CONTAMINATED WATER
Treatment: VACCINATION
: QUARANTINE
ALL THE ANIMAL’S FLU
SWINE FLU – affects pigs
AVIAN FLU – affects poultry
Treatment : vaccination and good farm management

BACTERIA
This pathogen causes bacterial disease
Many bacteria are harmless (not deadly)
Bacterial disease can be cured with ANTIBIOTICS
Most bacterial disease are contagious

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EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASE

Animal affected: DAIRY CATTLE

Symptoms: SORES IN THE UDDER
: DROP IN MILK PRODUCTION
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS INSERTED IN THE UDDER

Animal infected: ALL FARM ANIMAL

Symptoms: SWELLING OF THE NECK AND BODY
: HIGH FEVER
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS

Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS AND HUMAN (it is

zoonotic)
Symptoms: CHRONIC COUGHS
: INCREASED RATE OF BREATHING
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS

PROTOZOA
They cause protozoan disease

-curable

in grassy areas

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EXAMPLES OF PROTOZAN DISEASE

Animal affected: CATTLE , SHEEP AND GOAT

Type of tick causing: BLUE-TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , RED OR BROWN URINE , ANAEMIA
Treatment: VACCINATION
: ERADICATE VECTOR

Animal affected: ALL RUMINANTS ( cattle , sheep and goats)

Type of tick causing: BONT-TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , DIARRHOEA
Treatment: vaccination

Animal affected: CATTLE SHEEP GOAT

Type of tick causing: BONT TICK AND BLUE TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , ANAEMIA
Treatment: vaccination

Animal affected: most farm animals and human ( it is zoonotic)

Type of tick: bont legged tick
Symptoms: high fever , watery faeces , rapid dehydration
Treatment: vaccination and isolation

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FUNGI
They cause fungal disease
Most fungal disease are CHRONIC

EXAMPLE OF FUNGAL DISEASE

RINGWORM
Animal affected: all farm animals including human ( it is zoonotic)
Symptoms: a round wound with a scabby surface
Treatment: apply ointment ( topical application)
LYMPHY WOOL
Animal affected: sheep
Symptoms: sores in the skin
:secrete pus and form a scab (A Scab is tissue covering that
form when your skin is damaged)
Treatment: Dipping after shearing
: Topical application
PREVENTION OF ANIMAL DISEASE

Restrict movements of animals (movement permits)

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ECONOMIC IMPICATION OF ANIMAL DISEASE

des

INDEGENOUS METHOD OF CONTROLING ANIMAL DISEASE

3. ANIMAL PEST AND PARASITE

Parasites are organism that spend most of its life in the body of another
organism

according to their life cycle

TWO TYPES PARASITE

 Internal parasite
 External parasite

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INTERNAL PARASITE / ENDOPARASITE

side the body of animal called HOST

Examples of internal parasites

Liver fluke
Tape worm
Round worn
LIVERFLUKE
A worm with a flattened body
 PART OF BODY AFFECTED: Liver
 METHOD OF INFESATION: Through grazing infected pasture
 NUMBER OF HOST ON THE CYCLE: horse/cattle (first host)
: Snail (intermediate
host)
LIFE CYCLE OF LIVERFLUKE

5 4
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1. ADULT FLUKE in the liver of primary host (horse) laid eggs in the liver
2. EGGS are released in faeces
3. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE (maracidium) in the grass
4. Larvae swim to enter INTERMEDIATE HOST (snail)
5. Larvae leave the snail and form a CYSTS on the grass (resting stage)
6. Cysts on the grass is eaten by the animal and grow into a FLUKE (and
affect the liver)

WAYS TO CONTROL LIVERFLUKE

 Destroy all the intermediate hosts
 Burning the veld
 Rotational grazing

TAPEWORM
A long narrow and flat organism with many segments

 PART OF THE BODY AFFEECTED: Intestine

 NUMBER OF HOST: pig and human (TWO)
 METHOD OF INFESATION: ingesting raw meat that is infected
 ANIMAL AFFECTED: pigs, sheep and goat

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LIFE CYCLE OF TAPE WORM

1. Adult worm lay EGGS in the intestine of a HUMAN

2. Eggs are released in FAECES into the soil
3. PIG ingest eggs from the soil
4. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE inside the body of pig (and form a cysts in muscles)
5. Human eats raw meat infected with the CYSTS
6. Cysts into the human’s INTESTINES and develops into a TAPEWORM

ROUNDWORM
Is a small white thread-like organism

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 PART OF BODY AFFECTED: lungs

 NUMBER OF HOST: one
 METHOD OF INFESATION: grazing on a infected pasture
 ANIMAL INFECTED: cattle, sheep and goat

LIFE CYCLE OF ROUND WORM

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1. Adult worm lay EGGS in the small intestine of a cow

2. Eggs are released in FAECES of the cow
3. Eggs are eaten by cow when grazing on the grass
4. Egg hatch into a LARVAE in the intestine of a cow and moves into the LUNGS
5. Larva is coughed up and swallowed
6. Larvae matures and move to the small intestine

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ALL EXTERNAL PARASITES

ECONOMIC EFFECT OF INTERNAL PARASITES

a country

EXTERNAL PARASITE / ECTOPARASITE

EXAMPLESS OF EXTERNAL PARASITES

TICKS
BLOWFLY
MITES
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LICE
NASAL WORM
MOSQUITO

TICKS
Ticks causes protozoan disease

 REGION WHERE THEY OCCUR: warmer / humid region of the country

 EFFECTS OF TICKS: They bite, suck blood, transmit disease, cause
death to animals and low production (loss of wool , meat and milk)

TYPES OF TICKS
Ticks are divided into THREE according to number of host in their life cycle
To control the effect of ticks as parasites farmers need to know about the life
cycle and habits of ticks

GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS:

ADULT TICK EGGS LARVA NYMPH

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(i) BLUE-TICK
 has a single host in its life cycle
 Disease caused : red water and Anaplasmosis

LIFE CYCLE OF BLUE-TICK TICK

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(ii) BONT-LEGGED TICK

 Has two hosts in its life cycle
 Disease caused: Red water

LIFE CYCLE OF BONT-LEGGED TICK

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(iii) BONT-TICK
 Has three host in its life cycle
 Disease caused: Heart water and Congo fever

LIFE CYCLE OF BONT-TICK

A. ADULT TICK lay eggs on the ground

B. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE (after 6 weeks)
C. Larvae feed on the FIRST HOST
D. Larvae develop into a NYMPH (nymph feed on the 2nd host)
E. Nymph develop to an ADULT ( adult feed on the 3rd host)

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MITE
MITES CAN SPREAD FROM ANIMAL TO ANIMAL.
THEY LIVE PERMEMANTLY IN THE BODY OF HOST

EFFECTS OF MITES: Cause skin irritation

: Loss of hair ,wool and hide
: Transmit disease called SCAB and MANGE
Mange- is a skin condition that appear as red blister and itchy
APPEARANCE: Has four pairs of legs and a sucking mouth

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LICE
They are big enough to be seen with naked eyes
They can be transmitted from one animal to another

EFFECTS OF LICE: Cause skin irritation

: Decrease production
: Suck blood and transmit disease
APPEARANCE: Have three pairs of legs with big bums and hips

TYPES OF LICE
SUCKING LICE – have pointed heads and piercing style of sucking
BITTING LICE – have rounded heads and chewing mouth parts

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BLOWFLY

ANIMAL AFFECTED: sheep

EFFECTS OF BLOWFLY: sheep spend less time grazing and more time
tail wagging
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS THAT FAVOURS GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT OF BLOWFLY
: Wet conditions
: Availability of grass
: Soil below tail
: Open wounds

WAYS TO CONTROL BLOWFLY INFESATION

Tail docking – removal of tail
Crouching – removal of wool in the tail area and legs
Wool shearing- removal of wool
Dipping
Treatment of wounds

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LIFE CYCLE OF BLOWFLY

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NASAL WORM

ANIMAL AFFECTED: sheep

EFFECTS OF NASAL WORM: It blocks the nasal cavity
: Cause discomforts to animal
: Sheep will shake its head trying to get rid of the worm

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ALL EXTERNAL PARASITES

f the veld

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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF EXTERNAL PARASITES

-fungi

NOTE: MICRO-FUNGI eat the parasite’s eggs or larvae on the ground.

[Link] POISONING
 Wide range of plants can be poisonous to livestock.
 Farmers should be aware of plants that poses threat to their livestock and
take measures to prevent animals from grazing poisonous plants
 Plant poison is not very common , it occur when the pasture is overgrazed
and only poisonous plants remains
 There are THREE main important poisonous plants ;
 MAIZE FUNGUS
 THORNE APPLE
 POISON BULB

ANIMALS SUSCPETIBLE TO POISONOUS PLANTS

EXAMPLES OF POISONOUS PLANTS

 MAIZE FUNGUS
Is a mould often associated with grains (maize cob,peanuts and
sorghum)
It occur from eating maize that is stored in damp conditions

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SYMPTOMS OF MAIZE FUNGUS

 Lack of appetite
 Stomach pain
 Sweating
 Vomiting
TREATMENT OF MAIZE FUNGUS
 Keep affected animal calm to reduce further infection
 Increase supply of proteins and vitamins
PREVENTION / CONTROL OF MAIZE FUNGUS
 Remove infected feed from animals
 Remove source of poisoning
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing

 POISON BULB
This type of poison is mainly caused by bulbs such as a ONE-
LEAF CAPE TULIP
About a kilogram of leaf is enough to cause death overnight

PREVENTION OF POISON BULB

 Remove infected feed from animals
 Remove source of poison
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing

 THORN APPLE
Is a bushy plant with flowers covered with sharp spines nearly all summer
Thorn apple does not pose much threat since most animals cannot graze it
due to: BAD [Link] TASTE and THORNS

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SYMPTOMS OF THORN APPLE

 Loss of appetite
 Extreme mouth dryness
 Slow growth
 Pupil dilation
TREATMENT OF THORN APPLE
 Use activated charcoal
PREVENTION / CONTROL OF THORN APPLE
 Remove infected feed from animals
 Remove source of poisoning
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing

[Link] SALT POISONING

Poison due to heavy metals produced by industries can be a serious problem
Many metals may enter into production animal’s production system through
pollution.
These toxic metals will then accumulate in vital organs such as the liver an
the heart

EXAMPLES OF METALIC POISONING

(i) SALT POISONING

CAUSES OF SALT POISONING

ntake of less water and more salts
ack of water ( this will stop urine production and more salts builds up in
blood until it become poisonous and deadly)
SYMPTOMS OF SALT POISONING
xcessive saliva excretion
ehydration
iarrhoea

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ncreased thirst
ncreased urination and defecation
omiting

TREATMENT OF SALT POISONING

rovide clean water in small amount at short interval
ive young animals saline solution / hypertonic dextrose
emove source of poisoning

(ii) UREA POISONING

poorly mixed feed

Nitrogen from urea is converted to AMMONIA and when this ammonia
is excess it become poisonous
SYMPTOMS OF UREA POISONING
Bloating
Rapid death
Nervous excitement
Incoordination
TREATMENT OF UREA POISONING
Administer vinegar
PREVENTION OF UREA POISONING
Limit access to licks containing urea
Gradual increase in urea supplement to animals

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ROLE OF STATE IN ANIMAL HEALTH AND PROTECTION

The government play an important role in regulating farming practices
They generate and implement legislation to address priorities in livestock industry.

 QUARANTINE SERVICE
To isolate animals and prevent the spread of disease in the country
 CONTROL MEASURES
 IMPORT BANS
 MOVEMENT PERMITS
 VETERINARY SERVICE

Improving vaccines

 AWARENESS CAMPAIGN
 VACCINATION PROGRAMME
Notes

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[Link] GENETICS QUESTION 4

PAPER 2
Father of genetics “Gregor Mendel”
Genetics is the study of how characteristics are transferred from parents to
offspring

1. GENETIC TERMINOLOGY
- study of heredity
HEREDITY – passing of characteristics from parents to offspring
CHROMOSOME – structure that holds genes
GENE- small portion of DNA that code for characteristics
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS - characteristics that give rise
to whole range of phenotypes. It is influenced by many genes (polygenic
inheritance)
Environment has an influence in determining this characteristics
They determine continuous variation
 e.g. PRODUCTION (of eggs or milk) Colour coat
QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS- characteristics that have fixed
form of phenotypes. It is influenced by one pair of genes.
Environment has no influence in determining the characteristics.
They determine discontinuous variation
 e.g. Gender, Horns shape and chicken head comb
ALLELE- different forms of genes (expressed using alphabet)
 e.g T= Tall and t=Short
DOMINANT- allele that mask characteristics of recessive allele
 e.g TT= Tall and Tt= Tall
RECESSIVE- allele that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele.
It only appear in phenotype if the organism is homozygous
 e.g tt= short
HOMOZYGOUS / PURE BRED- combination of similar allele
 e.g tt and TT

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HETEROZYGOUS / HYBRID- combination of different allele

 e.g Tt
GENOTYPE- genetic make-up of an organism
PHENOTYPE- physical appearance of an organism

MENDEL’S LAWS
Genetics laws can be summarised as follows:
(i) LAW OF DOMINANCE
On the set of characteristic one gene is dominant and the other is recessive. The
phenotype of the organism will display the characteristics of the dominant gene
(ii) LAW OF SEGREGATION
When gametes are formed during meiosis allele separates so that offspring can get
one gamete from each parent
(iii) LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
In a DIHYBRID crosses, during gamete formation allele segregate independently
of each other.

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GENETIC CROSSES
Mendel’s genetic crosses are divided into:
(i) MONOHYBRID CROSSING “mono” means one
Is a genetic cross that involve one contrasting characteristic

Example of monohybrid crossing

A homozygous (purebred) Black bull (F) is crossed with a homozygous
(purebred) white cow (f) in a genetic experiment. Determine the genotype and the
phenotype of the offspring in the F1

Phenotype: black bull x white cow

Genotype:

Meiosis:

fertlisation:

Genotype:
Phenotype: all black / 100% black

Note: Only one characteristic (colour coat) was crossed

TO DETERMINE THE F2 GENERATION SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO

MATE. FOR AN EXAMPLE FROM THE ABOVE CROSING WE CAN
CROSS; (Ff with Ff to get our F2 generation)

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Dihybid crossing “di” means two

Is a crossing that involve two contrasting characteristic

Example of dihybrid crossing

A homozygous pea plant with purple flower (A) and tall plant size (B) is crossed
with a homozygous pea plant with white flowers (a) and short plant size (b)

Phenotype: purple and tall plant x white and short plant

Genotype: AABB X aabb

Meiosis: A, A, B, B X a, a, b, b
Fertilization:

Phenotype: 9 purple & tall : 3 purple and short: 3 white and tall: 1 white and short

Note: Two characteristics (colour and height) was crossed

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PATTERN OF INHERITANCE
COMPLETE DOMINANCE
It apply mainly on a heterozygous combination where only the effect of dominant
allele is shown in the phenotype of offspring

EXAMPLE OF COMPLETE DOMINANCE

A homozygous red flower (F) is crossed with a homozygous white flower (f)
determine the phenotype and genotype of the F1 generation
P1
Phenotye: red flower white flower
Genotype:

Meiosis:
Gamates
fertilisation
f1
Genotype
Phenotype: all 100% red

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CO-DOMINANCE
Both alleles in a gene pair are equally dominant
Both allele are equally shown in phenotype of offspring
Offspring become roan

Example of co-dominance
A homozygous white cow (W) is crossed with a homozygous red bull (R) to
produce red and white calves

WW RR

RW

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INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Alleles are not always dominant or recessive as in a complete dominance
It results in the formation of offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of
the parents.
Offspring are different from parents.
Example of incomplete dominance
A homozygous red flower (R) is crossed with a homozygous white flower (W)
and produced an offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of parents
Phenotype: red flower x white flower
Genotype: RR X WW
MEIOSIS (R) (F) X (W) (W)

Fertilization
F1
Genotype: RW RW RW RW
Phenotype: all pink

Is the reappearance of ancestral characteristics after it has been absent for many
generation (Teeth in chicken or extra toes in horse). It is also known as
“throwback”

Is the ability of one parent to pass a complete set of gene to its offspring?
Dominant genes from the male are passed to offspring

Action of one gene is controlled or modified by another gene

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INHERITANCE
Mechanism of inheritance in which genetic characteristics is controlled by many
genes.
Each gene add to value of a certain phenotype
Each gene may have an additive allele or non-additive allele
An additive allele adds a set of amount to the phenotype while a non-additive
allele does not add anything to the phenotype

Example of polygenic inheritance

The milk production in dairy cow is controlled by two pairs of genes. The
genotype aabbcc gives a milk yield of 200 litres. Each additive dominant gene
adds 20 litres. Calculate milk yield of a dairy cow with AAbbcc
bbcc = 200 litres
AA = 20+20= 40
∴ 200+40 = 240 litre

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VARIATION
Is the difference amongst organism of same species
 All individual of same species differ slightly from each other with
characteristics such as; HEIGHT , WEIGHT and COAT COLOUR

IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

k)

TYPES OF VARIATION
(i) Continuous variation
Is a variation in which there is a complete range of form
It is determined by quantitative characteristics (determined by many genes)
e.g. Height, Milk production, weight gain, yield of field crops
(ii) Discontinuous variation
Is a variation in which characteristics has fixed form with no intermediate form in
between
It is determined by qualitative characteristic
e.g. There are four types of chicken head comb (there are no other type comb and
chicken cannot have a mixed comb-type) and Gender

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CAUSES OF VARIATION
Variation is caused by two factors “ internal factors and external factors”
(i) INTERNAL FACTOR (genetic factors)
Meiosis
Fertilisation
Mutation
(ii) EXTERNAL FACTOR ( environmental factor)
Climate
 Animals kept in colder region have thicker hair than those in warmer
region
Topography
 Goats kept on steeper slope have longer and strong legs than goats
kept on flat slope
Nutrition
 Animals are shorter than other animals with same gene for tallness
due to nutrient deficiency
Disease
 Animals that are constantly exposed to disease develop immunity
from the disease while some does not develop immunity

Light intensity
 Animals on higher altitude have darker pigment than those on lower
altitude

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MUTATION
Is the sudden change in the structure of gene
 Mutation can be harmful or beneficial
 An organism affected by mutation is a MUTANT

TYPES OF MUTATION
(i) GENE MUTATION – sudden change in nucleotide sequence of the
DNA
:
 Deletion- one or more nitrogen bases are removed from the gene sequence
 Insertion – one or more nitrogen base is added into the gene sequence
 Substitution – one nitrogen base is replaced with another nitrogen base
 Inversion- the order of one or more nitrogen bases is reversed

AGENTS OF MUTATION (mutagens)

-rays , gamma rays , ultra violet radiation

IMPORTANCE OF MUTATION

individual improved characteristics

CAUSES OF MUTATION

Substitution

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SELECTION
Is the process of choosing individuals with desired characteristics for
breeding purpose

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION
It help to improve the characteristics livestock and crops over few
generation

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING BREEDING

LIVESTOCK

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION

HERITABILITY
 Is the degree in which a characteristic is determined by genetic factor than
environmental factors.

INTERPRETING HERITABILITY
Characteristic with heritability above 50% (0.5) i.e. 𝟓𝟎/𝟏𝟎𝟎=𝟎.𝟓
 IT IS DETERMINED BY GENETIC FACTORS
 THERE IS HIGH CHANCES THAT CHARACTERISTICS WILL
BE PASSED ON TO OFFSPRING DURING BREEDING

Characteristic with heritability less than 50% (0.5) i.e 60/100= 0.6
 IS DETERMINED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 THERE IS LESS CHANCE THAT CHARACTERISTICS ARE PASSED
ON TO OFFSPRING DURING BREEDING

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BIOMETRIC
 Is the use of statistics to analyze biological data
 Measure unique characteristics using a computer technology

IMPORTANCE OF BIOMETRIC
It improve accuracy of selecting individual for breeding programme

METHOD OF SELECTION

Selection from group of animal according to individuals performance

It is quick and simple but not very accurate ( because it is based on phenotype not
genotype)

Selection based on the quality of ancestor

lection
Selection based on the quality of relatives such as FULL-SIBLINGS or HALF-
SIBLINGS

Animal are selected based on the quality of their offspring

EBV (ESTIMATED BREEDING VALUE)

Is the estimate on how much better or less than average the offspring of an
individual will be for a characteristic
 It can either be positive or negative

Indicate that offspring will be better than average

Indicate that offspring less than average

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Calculating estimated breeding value (EBV)

Example: a horse farmer wants to calculate EBV for weight of a breed she
bought at an agricultural show. The farmer’s farm records gave the
following information:
Weaning weight of horse = 350 kg
Average weaning weight of all the horse in the farm = 310 kg
Heritability %: 60

Formula:
EBV= (WEANING WEIGHT – AVERAGE WEANING WEIGHT) X HERITABILITY %
Calculation:
EBV= (WW - AWW) X 60/100
= (350 - 310) X 60/100
= 40 X 0.6
= +24
∴310 + 24 = 334 KG

Note: EBV is positive, meaning offspring will be better than average

IMPORTANCE OF EBV

 It indicates the heritability of a particular characteristic to estimate the

success of a breeding programme
 Can be used to monitor progress of breeding programme

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BREEDING
Is the production of offspring by sexual reproduction

ANIMAL BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding systems are categorized into:
RELATED BREEDING and NON RELATED BREEDING SYSTEM
(i) RELATED BREEEDING SYSTEM
Breeding of individuals that are related
Breeding results in the formation of HOMOZYGOUS offspring
 Related breeding is divided into:
1. Inbreeding
Breeding of two individuals that are closely related to each other

Example of inbreeding
 Mating of parents with their offspring (backcrossing)
 Mating of siblings with each other (brother and sister)
2. Line breeding
Breeding of two individuals that are less closely-related to each other

Example of line breeding

 Mating of grandparents with offspring
 Mating of half sibling with another half sibling

ADVANTAGE OF INBREEDING AND LINE BREEDING

There is greater prepotency

homozygocity of offspring

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DISDVANTAGES OF INBREEDING AND LINE BREEDING

Inbreeding depression
Gradual decrease in performance from generation to generation
ly adapted to the environment

Diagram showing inbreeding

(ii) NON RELATED BREEDING SYSTEM

Breeding of individual that are not related to each other
Breeding results in HETEROZYGOUS offspring
Non related breeding system is divided into:
1. CROSS BREEDING
Mating of two animals that are not related closely related to each other
i.e. Mating of two different breeds of same species

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS BREEDING

ncreased variation

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Hybrid vigour or heterosis- increased performance of offspring generation after

generation

DISADVANTAGES OF CROSS BREEDING

re not uniform

2. SPECIES CROSSING
Mating of two animals of different species results in the offspring being
sterile

ADVANTAGES OF SPECIES CROSSING (MULE)

ve digestive programme

DISADVANTAGES OF SPECIES CROSSING (MULE)

3. UPGRADING
Is the repeated mating of inferior cow with a superior male animal
generation after generation
e.g. Crossing a COMMERCIAL MIXED-BREED COW with a
HOSLTEN STUD BULL generation after generation

DISADVANTAGES OF UPGRADING

-bred
-breed bulls should be bought outside

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st few generation is low

4. OUT CROSSING
Is the mating of two breeds that are not related

ADVANTAGES OF OUTCROSSING

GENETIC ENGENEERING/ MODIFICATION

Is the technique of changing the characteristic of an organism by inserting gene
from another organism into its DNA
Genetic modification process:

AIMS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

prove food quality

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC MODIFIED ORGANISM

(GMO)

imals with improved growth and productivity

COMPARISON BETWEEN GENETIC MODIFICATION AND

TRADITIONAL METHOD
TRADITIONAL METHOD
It is slow
It is not very precise
It is limited to breeds of same species
It is less convenient
Less productivity
GENETIC MODIFICATION
It is fast
It is very precise
It is not limited to breeds of same species
It is more convenient
High productivity

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GENETIC MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFECIENS
A bacterium called tumefeciens transfer a piece of its DNA into the plant cell
This bacterium is used as a vector to transfer desired genes into the plant cell
Gmo produced tissue culture Plasmit its gene in the plasmid inserted

DNA of plant cell into plant cell

4 3 2 1 Desired
gene

Plasmid of the bacterium

1. Desired gene inserted to the plasmid

2. Plasmid inserted into plant cell
3. Plasmid insert its gene into the DNA of plant cell
4. Tissue culture
5. Genetic modified plant is produced

Is a tool used to fire tiny particles of plant tissue into a cell

-INJECTION
Is the injection of desired genes directly into the nucleus of cell of a plant
It is mainly used in the modification of animals, but more difficult in plants
because plants has cell walls

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Cells are placed in a solution containing desired gene. An electric current is passed
through the solution and opens the pores in the cell membrane allowing desired
genes to enter the cell.

It involves using fats as carriers of desired genes through the cell membrane into
the nucleus

Making a gene to be inactive or non-functional

POTENTIAL BENEFIT OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Economic benefit

population will be fed at low cost

Health benefit

ntal condition

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POTENTIAL RISK OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Seeds from GM crops cannot be replanted , which means farmers have to buy
seeds every year
High seed cost

It can cause allergies

Can cause cancer
It can lower immune system
Can cause unknown disease

Reduce biodiversity
Insect resistant plant can kill beneficial insects
Production of super weed
Excess use of herbicides may damage the soil
Social risk
Developing countries will depend on developed countries for seeds
Some people think it is unethical using GMO

Notes

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AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION PAPER 2

QUESTION 3
FACTORS
There are four production factors in agriculture. Namely LAND, LABOUR,
CAPITAL and MANAGEMENT

1. LAND/SOIL
This production factor is involved in the production of goods and services
It includes all the natural resources available to the farmer

ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF LAND/SOIL

It supply food (grass for livestock and vegetables for humans)

(for building farm shed, planting crops or area for grazing)
minerals that can be used to make fertilizers such as potash
that is used in manufacturing of potassium)

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND/SOIL

’s value appreciate over time (it gains value)
Availability of land for agriculture is limited (arable land previously used for
agriculture can be used for urban development)
t varies in production potential (sound investment)
t can mot produce on its own
t is immovable (it has fixed location or found in a specific environment)
indestructible (even though the structure can degrade if misused)
t can be sold or bought
collateral (form of security required by the bank before
granting a loan

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subjected to the law of diminishing return

durable

WAYS TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY OF LAND/ SOIL

fertilizers
water management ( irrigation system must be installed in areas
where water is available)
good farming methods (such as crop rotation, double cropping and
intercropping)
uneconomic farming units (combining small farms to make
one big farm)

THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN

Graph illustrating the law of diminishing return

This law states that;

Increased amount of input does not give proportional increase to output this will to
a point where the total yield decline

2. LABOUR
Is the combination physical and mental endeavor (skill) performed in expectation
of remuneration (salary)

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 It is one of the major cost items in agricultural industry and has a significant
impact in the success of a farming operation.

WAYS TO REDUCE LABOUR COST

Introduce mechanisation

nding workers to training

TYPES OF LABOUR
PERMANENT LABOUR
48 hours a week)

They have job security

e.g. foreman, tractor driver and mechanic

CASUAL LABOUR
-repetitive duties such as building or erecting a
fence

have contacts with the employer

SEASONAL LABOUR
hey are employed during peak period often for specific duties such as
harvesting , lambing and wool shearing

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RANKING OF SKILLS IN A WORK FORCE

SKILLED LABOUR
Type of labour who is formally trained and qualified to the job
e.g. Engineer, veterinarian and manager
SEMI-SKILLED
g (experience) but lack formal training
e.g. driver
UNSKILLED LABOUR
Type of labour who does not have any formal skill or level of training
e.g General workers

PROBLEMS RELATED TO LABOOUR

LACK OF SKILLS
 It is caused by: Lack of training
 Effects of lack of skill: Low production
: Limit use of technology
SHORTAGE OF LABOUR
 It is caused by: Less attractive working conditions
: Low wages
: Industrial competition
 Effects of labour shortage: Low production
: Production delays
EXPLOITATION OF FARM WORKERS
 It includes: Farmer owners having racist attitudes to farm workers
: Violation of farm worker’s rights

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HIV and AIDS

 Effects of HIV and AIDS: Regular absenteeism make planning difficult
: Decline in production
: Loss of skills and experience
: Production delays due to labour shortage

ILLEGAL PRACTICES ENCOUNTERED ON FARMS

People are illegally and forcibly removed from farms where they have living

It is illegal to employ a child under 15 years of age, and child must be given task
that are suited for a person of that age
FAILURE OF EMPLOYER TO ADHERE TO LEGISLATION
It is considered illegal for an employer not to adhere to legislation such as the
Basic Conditions Of Employment Act

INCREASING LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
Is the measure of out-put per input of labour force
WAYS TO INCREASE LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
OVING ECONOMIC CONDITION
 It can be improved by:
Provide incentives for workers
Increase wages
Pay bonus
Provide medical insurance
Supply farm products on reduced priced
Enter into partnership deals with workers (selling shares to workers)
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IMPROVING EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS

 It can be improved by:
Send workers to training
Provide free schooling and bursaries to children of farm worker
IMPROVING WORKING CONDITION
 It can be improved by:
Provide protective clothing to farm workers
Provide transport between home and work
Adequate leave
IMPROVING LIVING CONDITION
 It can be improved by:
Adequate shelter safe and secure
Adequate water and food
Provide recreational facilities
HIV and AIDS
 It can be limited by:
Education (awareness campaign)
Provide access to condoms
Provide access to treatment
Encourage good values such as not having multiple sexual partners

LABOUR LEGISLATION
It is placed to protect employees and employers as both parties will know what
their rights and responsibilities are. It prevents unfair labour practices on farms.

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Basic Condition Of Employment Act of 1997

It ensures that fair labour practice exist
It regulates the following:
Working hours
Overtime (working on Sunday and public holidays)
Minimum wage
Method of payment
Condition for termination of employment (a 30-day notice should be placed
prior to the termination)
Leave (including sick leave , maternity leave and annual leave)
Meal interval

It regulate relationship between the employer and employee

It address the following:
Labour dispute
It ensure social justice
Gives workers a right to strike
Provide procedure to resolution of labour dispute
Right to join trade union
Involvement of workers in decision making process
Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993
It deals with health safety in a workplace
It ensures the following:
Workers are trained to operate machinery and handling dangerous
chemicals
Supply protective clothing

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Working environment is safe

Compensation of Occupational Injuries and Disease Act 1993
It applies to employers and employees who are injured, disable or contract a
disease due to workplace accident
It ensures that:
Compensation due to injuries, disease and disability is granted
Skill Development Act of 1998
It enforces enrichment of farm workers with skills
All employers are entitled to pay skill development levy (1% of worker’s
pay)
It ensure the following:
Provision of training to workers
Developed workforce skill

It ensure that there is no work place discrimination based on:

Gender
Age
Race
Religion
Sexuality
Disability

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LABOUR CONTRACT
Is the legal written agreement between the employer and the employee.

responsibility leave
s for termination (valid and fair reason for termination)

3. CAPITAL
This money or equipment that are used in production process
all the goods and assets such as building, equipment and
vehicles that are used in production process.
Asset – item of economic value that you own

TYPES OF CAPITAL
Fixed capital
 Capital invested on fixed assets
e.g. building, land borehole and dam

 Capital invested on medium-term assets

e.g. livestock , vehicle ,machinery , and equipment
working /floating capital

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 Capital invested on short-term assets and used to pay short term operational
expenses
e.g. feed, fertilizers, chemicals, seeds ,fuel, wages &
telephone bill
TYPES OF ASSETS

Assets that are purchased and used for long term

Its value appreciate overtime
e.g. land , building dam and borehole

Assets that are purchased and used for medium term

Its value appreciate overtime
e.g. machinery , equipment and livestock

Assets that are used for short-term

e.g. money in the bank , seeds and wages etc

GENERATION/CREATION OF CAPITAL

oans and grants

Credit – All loans and advances given to borrowers that need to be
repaid back with interest
Grant- Some of money provided by a government that does not need to
be repaid back
Interest- amount of money that a financial institution charge for lending
money

SOURCE OF FINANCE

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When applying for a loan you need:

Prepare a business loan
Financial record
Collateral

CREDIT
TYPES OF CREDITS
-term credit
Credit given and repaid over long period
 Used to expand fixed assets (such as building, land and dam and borehole)
Repayment period: over 10 years
Medium-term credit
Credit given and repaid over medium term period
 Used to improve movable assets (such as machine and equipment)
Repayment period:1-5 years
Short-term credit
Credit given and repaid over short period of time
 Used to cover operational expenses (current assets) e.g. wages, seeds, fuel
and fertilisers
Repayment period: less than 1 year

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PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH CAPITAL

– some capital items cannot be produced in a country and
must be imported
– capital gods are expensive and cost to borrow money to buy them
- most capital item have limited lifespan and can lose value
overtime (subjected to wear and tear)
interest rate
- having less capital than required
- having too much capital than required

ject to law of diminishing

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Is the process of keeping records of all business transaction (accounting)

Reason for keeping financial record

e previous and current performance of the business

Financial management system allow the farmer to do the following:

Inventory – record of all assets

Cash analysis book – used to record receipts and payments

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BALANCE SHEET- summary of all assets and liabilities

 It projects net worth of the business
Net worth- assets minus liability
- money that you owe(financial debt)
– item of economic value that you owns
Example of balance sheet

- summary of income and expenditure

 It projects net profit
Net profit – income minus expenses

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Example of income statement of period

The above business cannot be recommended since the expenditure exceeds

income hence it lead to business loss
- is the movement of cash in a business
- It includes receipts and payments

ATEMENT
Opening balance
Income
Expenditure
Profit /loss
Closing balance
Cash items

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Example of a cash flow budget statement

BUDGET- is the written document that shows the estimation how much you
think you will spend and earn over a period of time
TYPES OF BUDGETS

Whole farm budget

 Budget that combines all the enterprises within the farm
Enterprise budget
 Budget for one single enterprise within the farm
Partial budget
 Budget used to test the effect on profit
Example of enterprise budget showing estimate for 2020/21 financial year

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MANAGEMENT
-ordination of human, physical and financial resources
to achieve a certain goal

PRINCIPLES/ COMPONENTS OF MANAGEMENT

It involve developing long-term and short-term plan

It involves what to do, when to it, how to do it and who is going to do it
 Documents linked to planning are;
Business plan & Budget
IMPLEMENTATION
It involve setting the plan in motion

It involves measuring and verifying the results

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS

It allow the business to anticipate and adapt to changes and future challenges
Main components of strategic management
Develop a vision
This is what you hope the business would be in future
Develop a mission
It outline the purpose of the business ( what you do, for who and the
purpose of the business)

It gives overall direction

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MANAGEMENT SKILLS NEEDED TO MANAGE FARMING

BUSINESS
NB: THE OWNER OF THE FARM CAN BE THE MANAGER OR MIGHT
HIRE A PERSON ANDTHE PERSON MUST SHOW WIDE RANGE OF
SKILLS.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Analytical skill
Able to analyse information (market information)
Conceptual skill
Allow manager to reflect to changes in the industry and develop strategies (like
change in market price and completion)
Planning skill
Important for day-to-day planning and long term planning.
Problem-solving skill
Able to deal with problems rather than avoiding them.
Ability to adapt
Able to adapt to changed(know when to adapt to new technologies)

The manager must be well vested on financial matters regarding borrowing,

investing and full understanding regarding taxation so as to regard against financial
losses.
He/she must able to negotiate prices
Able to keep financial records

Able to interact effectively with different people (negotiate deals and contracts)
Able to make other people understand you and be able to understand what others
are trying to say to you

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Manager must have a thorough knowledge of the farm operation. They should
know the requirements of the enterprise.
For an example: In beef enterprise;
The manager must have adequate knowledge of veld management to know how
many animals should graze in a certain camp, and when to move them to a new
camp

Manager must identify potential risk and come up with a strategy to reduce, control
and eliminate the risk.

SOURCE OF RISK IN FARMING BUSINESS

TECHNICAL RISK (PRODUCTION RISK)
Unpredictable weather conditions
Drought and flooding
Disease outbreaks
Pest
Machine breakdown or outdated
Labour-related(strike)
MARKETING RISK
Change in customers’ needs and wants result in;
Reduced demand
Reduced price

More competition

Inability to pay debts on time

Unpredictable interest rates
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Production fails
LEGAL RISK
When the manger is taken to court for having ignored some regulatory standard
that lead to an injury or death.
HUMAN or PEOPLES RISK
It takes place when the skill is lost due to death, disability, divorce, illness etc.

RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

It involves managing the spread of risk in a farming business

INSURANCE
It is good to insure the property, machinery against things like storms, hail damage,
injury of the visitor etc.
RISK SHARING
Allow farmer to share risk with other parties
DIVERSIFICATION
Having number of different enterprise on the farm
Example of diversification;
Planting of different crops (i.e. mixed farming)
A farmer can spread his/her investment over several enterprises (pig farming,
poultry farming cattle farming etc.)
Geographical diversification (have different land types wherein there are different
soil types and different climatic conditions)
PROCESSING or VALUE ADDING
Changing raw form of gods into a form that can easily be used by customers
Example of processing;
Processing milk into cheese, yogurt and chocolate

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SPECIALISATION
Specialising with one enterprise that is product suited
HEDGING
Entering in future contract with supermarkets

FACTORS AFFECTING FARMING BUSINESS

These are forces that originate on the farm itself

The employer can have control over such forces
For an example;

EXTERNAL FORCES
These are forces that the employer cannot have control over
For an example;

Notes

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PAPER 2

QUESTION 2

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

MARKETING
Is the process involving the movement of a product from the farm to the consumer
It can also be a place whew buyers and sellers meet

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MARKETING AND SELLING

Marketing Selling
It is Profit- oriented It is Product oriented
Focuses on long-term plans Short-term objective is selling of
product
Focus on satisfying the wants of Customer’s needs and satisfaction are
customers neglected
Focus mainly on the product Focus on sales volume

MARKETING FUNCTIONS

FOUR MAIN FUCNTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

1. TRANSPORT FUNCTION
It involves moving products from the farm to processing facilities, and then
to the consumer using different mode of transport
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPORT FUNCTION

ivery

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Example: Transporting fruits from farm to processing plant

2. STORAGE
It includes holding raw products until they needed.
Food is kept for later use to guarantee food security
ADVANTAGES OF STORAGE

3. PACKAGING
The science of enclosing products for distribution and distribution

ADVANTAGES OF PACKAGING
product handling easier

Packaging should protect the product against:

(i) Mechanical damage

(ii) Poor environmental conditions during handling
For identification of product
Packaging must: provide useful information about the product such as:

(i) Name of product

(ii) Size of product
(iii) Grade of product
(iv) Net weight
(v) Country of origin

4. PROCESSING/ VALUE ADDING

Involves changing a raw form of a product into a form that can easily be
used by consumers

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ADVANTAGES OF PROCESSING/VALUE ADDING

Example: Drying up meat

: Blending
: Canning
: Fermenting

FACILITATING FUNCTION
It does not involve direct handling of the product

It includes:
(i) Standardization
It is about setting standards or specification for a product
(ii) Grading
Is the process of sorting agricultural products according to set
standards
MARKETING POLICY INSTRUMENT (4ps)
1. PRODUCT DESIGN
Producer needs to be aware of what the consumer wants
2. PRICE
Producer determines how much the consumer will pay for the product
3. PLACEMENT
Producer should know where the consumer wants to buy product
4. PROMOTION
Producer needs to communicate information about the produce

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Ways to implement promotion;

- IN-STOREPROMOTION
- EXHIBITIONS
- DIRECT MAILING
PRICE DETERMINATION
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN DERTEMONING A PRICE OF A
PRODUCT

DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Amount of goods that the consumer are willing to buy at a given price

Amount of goods that the producer is willing to sell at given price

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1. DEMAND
LAW OF DEMAND
Shows a negative relationship between price and quantity demanded:
HIGHER the price the LOWER the demand
Meaning: If the price of a product increases less customers will buy the product
: If the product is cheap customers will buy more of the product

DEMAND SCHEDULE
Is the table that shows relationship between price of goods and quantity demanded
Price (R/Box) Quantity
(Box/week)
2800 10
2100 15
1600 30
800 35
600 40

DEMAND CURVE
Is the graph showing the relationship between price of goods and quantity
demanded

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FACTORS DETERMINING DEMAND

2. SUPPLY

LAW OF SUPPLY
Shows a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied
higher the price the higher the supply
Meaning: If the price of a product increases the producer will supply more
products (taking advantage of the price to affect profit)
When the price of a product increases the producer supply more products to gain
more money from the products

SUPPLY SCHEDULE
owing the relationship between price and quantity supply of product
Price Quantity
(R/box) (box/week)
200 10
400 15
800 20
1000 25
1400 30

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SUPPLY CURVE
Is the graph showing the relationship between price and quantity supplied

FACTORS DETERMINING SUPPLY

roduction costs

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SUPPLY

Supplying more than required

Supplying less than required

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WAYS TO AVOID OVERSUPPLY

1. Reduce production
2. Product dumping
3. Processing
4. Diverfication
5. Hedging
6. Improve promotion and advertising

PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY

PRICE ELASTICITY
Is the relationship between the change in price and demand and supply

PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Is the relationship between the change in price and a change in demand of a
product
Example of elasticity of demand
price of chocolate bar increase by 12%, many people will stop buying
it and go for other cheaper chocolate and hence demand changes in response to
change in price

Graph illustrating price elasticity of demand

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INTERPRETING THE GRAPH:

A slight change in price results in a substantial change in quantity demanded
It is a common knowledge that when price increases less of that product will be
bought

FACTORS DETERMINING ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Nature of the product
Luxury items show more elasticity than basic items
Availability of substitute products
The more substitute goods for the product the more elastic the demand
Time/period
The more time passes, the more elastic is the demand

PRICE INLASTICITYOF DEMAND

Example of inelasticity of demand
If the price of petrol increase by 20%, most people will have no choice but to
buy the petrol
Graph illustrating inelasticity of demand

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INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increased change in price results only a slight change in quantity
demanded. Increase in price has less effect on the demand of the product

PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

Is the relationship between the change in price and the change in supply.

Example of elasticity of supply

If the price of certain products increases this will cause the quantity
supplied to increase. The producer always take advantage of increased price
when supplying his products

GRAPH ILLUSTRATING ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increase change in price results in increased change in quantity supplied
It is common knowledge that if price increases the producer will take advantage
of the price and supply more to affect his profit

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FACTORS DETERMINING ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

Price of product

PRICE INELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

Example of inelasticity of supply
If Products can be stored and be marketed all year round, quantity supplied will
not change

Graph illustrating inelasticity of supply

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increased change in price result in small change in quantity supplied.
Change in price has less effect on supply

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MARKET EQUILIBRIUM
Is the point where demand and supply is equal

Example of market equilibrium

As the price of the product increases, demand for the product decreases.
But the producer is willing to supply more .Where supply and demand is
equal is called the market equilibrium

DEMAND AND SUPPLY SCHEDULE

Price (R/box) Quantity demanded Quantity
(box/week) supplied(box/week)
5 2000 12000
4 4000 1000
3 7000 7000
2 11000 4000
1 16000 1000

Graph illustrating market equilibrium

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FLOOR PRICE
Is a situation where price charged for a product is higher than equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from falling below certain levels
CEILING PRICE
Is a situation where price charged is below the equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from rising above certain levels
and this lead to shortage of product

OVERSUPPLY AND SHORTAGE IN THE MARKET

EQUILIBRIUM

Over supply (surplus)

When price of a product is above the equilibrium price the following occur;
1. Demand of the product decrease
2. Supply of the product increase
 Supply exceeds the demand this result in more product supplied than
required

Shortage (deficit)
When price of a product is below the equilibrium price the following occur;
1. Demand of the product increase
2. Supply of the product decrease
 Demand exceeds the supply this results in more product demanded and less
is supplied

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SHIFT DEMAND AND SUPPLY

SHIFT DEMAND
Is the factor that influence changes of demand (other than price)
The equilibrium price changes if the demand for a product changes.
Example of shift
During Christmas there is an increase in demand of CHOICE ASSORTED
BUISCUTS. As the demand increases the biscuits become scarce(less supply).
The market will then sets a new price that is above the equilibrium price,
meaning the producer will charge more for the CHOICE ASSORTED
BUISCUTS.
Shift demand graph

Increased in demand tend to increase equilibrium price while decrease in

demand tend to decrease equilibrium price

FACTORS CAUSING SHIFT DEMAND

come

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SHIFT SUPPLY
Is one factor that influence changes of supply (other than price). The equilibrium
price change if the supply for a product change
Example of shift supply
As summer arrives the fruits such as mangoes come to season (increased supply).
The market will set a new equilibrium price that is lower than the old
equilibrium price. Meaning the sellers will shift their prices down.

SHIFT SUPPLY GRAPH

Increase in supply tends to decrease equilibrium price. While decrease in supply

tend to increase equilibrium price

FACTORS CAUSING SHIFT SUPPLY

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MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Is a strategic step taken by producer to develop existing market rather than looking
for new market
DEVELOPING A MARKET YOU MUST;
1. Conduct market research
 Study the market you would like to sell your product to
Market research includes:
Collecting information about customers
Collecting information competition
2. Developing marketing strategy
It includes conducting the 4ps:
(i) PRODUCT (what product to make and sell)

Factors to consider when designing the product

(ii) PRICE(how much your product is going to cost)

Factors to consider when determining price

st

(iii) Placement(where to sell the product)

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Factors to consider when determining placement of

product

(iv) Promotion(how are you going to convince people to buy your product)

Ways to implement promotion

-store sales

MARKETING APPROACH

Focuses on selling to a small segment of a market

Focuses on a specific group of consumers in a market place.
It is not served by mainstream suppliers

Take in as large market as possible

Promotes same product in different ways to different group of people
Attempts to reach every consumer rather than targeting a particular market
segment.
It targets the whole market with a single offer.
Traditionally, Mass marketing is done through radio. Television and newspaper

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It allows you to select few segments and develop a marketing strategy that fit
well.
This is typically done by offering different levels of quality to different levels of
income.
Example multi-segment
Offering Class 1 fruits to consumers with high income and Class 3 fruit to
consumers with low income.
SUSTAINABLE MARKETING
Involves the application of an environmental friendly marketing approach

WAYS OF MARKETING PRODUCTS IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY

 Developing a product that is naturally healthy (organic product), instead of
genetically modified crops
 Eco-labelling
The practice of putting labels on products to promote them as environmental
friendly
 Biodegrading/ recyclability

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MARKETING SYSTEM
Is the mechanism through which goods reach different places
Marketing systems are divided into: Free marketing, co-oparative marketing &
controlled markrting
TYPES OF MARKETING SYSTEM

1. FREE-MARKETING
System where goods and services are exchanged freely without restriction and
control

Advantages of free marketing system

t is usually cash

(they create good reputation)

cers show initiative and drive (they work very hard to earn profit)

Disadvantages of free marketing system

ers are exposed to competition

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-scale)

FREE MARKETING CHANNEL

-GATE MARKETING
Selling directly from the farm
Price notice is placed on the farm gate

Advantages of farm-gate marketing

Disadvantages of farm-gate marketing

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Goods are delivered to agents at municipal market.

Goods delivered, graded and sold at set purchased

Advantages of fresh produce market

Livestock are sold on auction to the highest bidder

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Advantages of stock auction

Disadvantages of stock auction

y be lower than market price

Producer sell directly to retailer(it is done under contract arrangement)

Advantages contract market

Disadvantage of contract market

st always have sufficient products available to meet the needs of
customers
(If the farmer cannot meet
the needs of the retailer, he will have to buy in products to make up quantities
required by the retailer)

Products are advertised and sold online via a computer

Advantage of internet marketing

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Disadvantages of internet marketing

2. AGRICULTURAL COOPARATIVES
Is the marketing system where two or more independent farms or group of people
work together to meet their common needs

PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL COOPRATIVES

Democratic member control
Voluntary and open membership
Concern about community
Members contribute equally

ADVANTAGES OF COOPARATIVES
There is consistent supply (work together to supply large volumes)
Middleman is eliminated
Better infrastructure (get facilities that and individual farmer cannot afford)
Bargain power (greater chance of negotiating good price their product)
k purchasing (able to negotiate good price for their inputs)
(government make funding available for cooperative)
Branding (can develop a brand for their product)

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TYPES OF COOPARATIVES
PRODUCTION COOPARATIVE-produce collectively
SERVICE COOPARATIVE-provide service to members
MARKETING COOPERATIVE-negotiate with markets on behalf of members
PURCHASING COOPERATIVE-purchase inputs on behalf of members
CONSUMER COOPRATIVE-buy products in bulk and sell to their members at
a discount

3. CONTROLLED MARKETING
Is the marketing system in which buying and selling is manipulated or
controlled by the government (government may decide on the price of a
product)
ADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED MARKETING

roducer focus on their farming activities rather than spending time on

marketing the products
table prices

DISADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED MARKETING

blishment of centralized facilities such as abattoirs or grain storage

facilities can be inefficient and increase transport costs.

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MARKETING CHAIN / SUPPLY CHAIN / AGRIBUSINESS

CHAIN
Steps or path involved in the movement of product from farm to the consumer.
Each activity in the chain involves a cost

COST INVOLVED IN MARKETING CHAIN

1. PRODUCTION COST
2 .PACKAGING COST
3. PRODUCT PREPARATION
4. TRANSPORT COST
5. STORAGE COST
6. PROCESSING COST
7. TAX
8. PRODUCT LOSS COST

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FACTORS HAMPERING MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS
1. POOR INFRUSTRUCTURE
Include poor roads and lack of storage facilities
2. PERISHABILITY OF PRODUCT
Many products deteriorate when not stored, handled and transported properly
3. LOW VALUE IN RELATION TO VOLUME
Some product have low value to their size this increase transport cost
4. SEASONAL FLUCTUATION
Many products are produced during one season and yet there’s year-round demand
which means proper storage is needed
5. ACCIDENT AND THEFT
It increase marketing cost

WAYS TO STREAMLINE AND IMPROVE MARKETING CHAIN

(build adequate roads)
IMPROVE ACCESS TO MARKET INFORMATION (provide cell phones
and internet as a marketing strategy)
PROVIDE STORAGE (to prevent product spoilage)
PROCESS PRODUCTS CLOSE TO WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED
(reduce less value to value)

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MARKETING LEGISLATION

Notes

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Question 2

Paper 2

AGRICULTURAL ENTREPRENEUSHIP
AND BUSINESS PLANNING

Difference between entrepreneurship and entrepreneur

ENTREPRENEUR IMPORTANT FACTORS ANDSUCCESS

FACTORS

PHASES OF ENTREPRENURSHIP
1. Identify an opportunity
2. Evaluate opportunity

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3. Determine resources required

4. Develop a business plan
5. Start and manage the business

BUSINESS PLAN
Is a document that describes how a business will operate. It also states the business
goals, the reasons they can be achieved and the plan for how to achieve them

REASON FOR DRAWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

idea

TESTING FEASIBILITY OF BUSINESS IDEA

if your business idea
will succeed:
Is there a market for my product or service i want to offer?
Do i have skills to start and run the business?
Do i have resources to start the business or can i acquire them?

PROBLEMS WHEN DRWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

ficient research

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SOLUTION WHEN DRAWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

ness plan

SWOT ANALYSIS
Is a strategic planning tool that helps you to evaluate your business
It is an acronym for: S- STRENGTH W- WEAKNESS O- OPPORTUNITY
T- THREATS
1. STRENGTH

For an example:
Good reputation
Skills and labour experience
Latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
Good infrastructure
Good management skill
2. WEAKNESS

business
For an example:
Lack of latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
poor location of the business

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lack of skills
undercapitalisation
bad reputation
having large debts
poor management skill

3. OPPORTUNITY
External motivating factors that are needed for a farming business to be
successful
It help to improve performance of business
For an example:
Changes in tax laws
Market growth
New trends
Lifestyle changes
A competitor went bankrupt
4. THREATS
The external factors that can put your farming business at risk.
For an example:
Increased interest rates
Products become unfashionable
Increased competition

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Notes

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